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[Phyl]

Brown Thrasher,, continued








Sources:

Cavitt, J. F. and C. A. Haas. 2000. Brown Thrasher (Toxostoma rufum), The Birds of North America (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.

Nicholson, C. P. 1997. Atlas of Breeding Birds of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

Sibley, D. A. 2000. The Sibley Guide to Birds. A. A. Knopf, New York, NY.

[Phyl]

European Starling,
 Sturnus vulgaris




There are over 200 million European Starlings in North America today.  They are all descendants of the 100 birds released in New York's Central Park in the early 1890s by a group dedicated to introducing all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare's plays into America.

The play that featured the starling was Henry IV: "Nay, I'll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but 'Mortimer'..." Starlings are very good mimics and were a popular cage bird in Europe.

They first appeared in Tennessee in 1921, and by 1970 they had spread to upper Alaska.  European Starlings now breed across all of North America and only the Canadian birds migrate south in winter.

Starlings became established so easily because they are habitat generalists able to exploit a large variety of habitats, nest sites, and food sources.

They will eat almost anything from French fries to an array of invertebrates, small vertebrates, fruits, and seeds. While they do eat some insects that are harmful to crops, starlings are thought to do more harm than good. They steal grain, ravage crops, and out-compete native birds for winter fruits.

Regardless of how loud and obnoxious the huge winter flocks can be, their aerial displays performed before roosting are beautiful and impressive.

Description: This stocky, Blackbird has a short square-tipped tail, a long pointed bill, and walks rather than hops. In flight, the wings are short and pointed.

The feathers are glossy black tipped in white in winter giving the bird a speckled appearance.

These white feather tips wear off by spring leaving a shimmering green-and-purple glossy plumage. The bill is dark in winter and yellow in spring. The male and female look the same; the juvenile (May-August) is a drab gray-brown all over.

In the fall molting, juveniles may have patches of gray and black.

Length: 8.5"
Wingspan: 16"
Weight: 2.7 oz

Voice: The song is a variety of trills, whistles, chatters, and twitters. The European Starling is known to mimic other birds including Eastern Meadowlark, Brown-headed Cowbird, and Eastern Wood-Pewee. They give a variety of calls including a sliding wolf-whistle. Females also sing, but mostly in the fall.

Similar Species:

Blackbirds have slimmer bodies, longer tails, and shorter, thicker bills. No blackbird has a yellow bill.
Juvenile and female Brown-headed Cowbirds are similar in color to juvenile starlings, but cowbirds have a longer tail, a slimmer body, and a much stouter and shorter bill.

Habitat: Found in a variety of habitats especially near people in agricultural and urban areas.

Diet: Broad diet of many kinds of invertebrates, small vertebrates, fruits, grains, seeds, and garbage.

Nesting and reproduction: European Starlings are cavity nesters and may negatively impact several native birds including woodpeckers,

Great Crested Flycatchers, Tree Swallows, Eastern Bluebirds, and Purple Martins by competing with them for nest sites (see fun facts below).

Starlings in Tennessee appear to only occasionally produce a second brood.

Clutch Size: 3 to 7 eggs with 4 to 5 eggs most common.

Incubation: Both adults incubate the eggs for 12 days.

Fledging: Both adults feed the chicks, which fledge in 21 to 23 days. Unlike many birds, the fledglings are fully feathered and fly well when they leave the nest. They are independent of the adults in three to four days and form flocks with other juveniles.

Nest: Inside the cavity, adults build a nest of grass, fresh green vegetation, or pine needles and may also include feathers, paper, plastic, and string. Nests can be located 2 to 60 feet above the ground, but an average of 10 to 25 feet.

[Phyl]

European Starling,, continued

Status in Tennessee: The European Starling is an abundant permanent resident of all developed portions of the state. During winter, migrant starlings join resident starlings and blackbirds and form large nocturnal roosts that can number in the hundreds of thousands.

The population appears to be stable in Tennessee, but slightly decreasing range-wide. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act does not protect European Starlings.

Map of European Starling eBird observations in Tennessee


Fun Facts:

The first starlings recorded in Tennessee were found in December 1921 in both Nashville and Bluff City, Sullivan Co. The first nests were reported in 1925 in Bristol and Knoxville. By 1935 starlings were nesting in Memphis. They are now the second most abundant bird species reported on Tennessee Breeding Bird Survey routes.
The muscles of the European Starling jaw work "backward." Instead of using most of their power to clamp the bill shut, the muscles spring the bill open. This allows the bird to insert the closed bill into the ground or into an object and then pry it open. The eyes have the ability to then move forward giving it binocular vision.
Starlings are fierce competitors for nest cavities and frequently expel native bird species. They are believed to be responsible for a decline in native cavity-nesting bird populations, but a study in 2003 found few actual effects on populations of 27 native birds. Only sapsuckers showed declines because of starlings, and other species appeared to be holding their own against the invaders.
Typically, cavity nesters lay their eggs on nests of dead grass, a bed of chips or feathers, but starlings build nests that include fresh green vegetation that acts as fumigants against parasites and pathogens inside their chambers.
European Starlings are eaten in the Netherlands, Spain, and France. In France tinned starling pate (pate de sansonnet) is available in many stores, including airport duty-free shops.
The oldest known European Starling in the wild was 15 years 3 months old.
Best places to see in Tennessee: European Starlings can be found in all developed areas of the state.

[Phyl]

European Starling,, continued





Sources:
Cabe, P. R. 1993. European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), The Birds of North America (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.

Nicholson, C. P. 1997. Atlas of Breeding Birds of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

Sibley, D. A. 2000. The Sibley Guide to Birds. A. A. Knopf, New York, NY.

Withers, D. I. 2000. Origins of the European Starling in the United States.

[Phyl]

Cedar Waxwing,
Bombycilla cedrorum


The Cedar Waxwing has a black mask, a short crest, and unusually silky cinnamon-brown plumage.  The "waxy" red tips on the secondary flight feathers of some adult birds is not always easy to see, and their function is unknown.

Unlike most North American birds, the Cedar Waxwing is primarily a fruit eater and many aspects of its life history, from its nomadic habits to its late-season nesting, reflects this diet preference.  Cedar Waxwings are very social birds and are known to sit side by side and pass a berry or insect from one to the other until one bird eats it.

The breeding range extends across Canada and the northern United States south to northern Georgia, and Cedar Waxwings winter throughout the United States into Mexico and Central America.

Description: These sleek birds have a distinctive crest, a black mask and chin patch, a soft cinnamon-colored plumage, grayish pointed wings, and a grayish tail with a yellow terminal band. Not all birds have red waxy tips on the secondaries. The sexes are nearly alike, but the chin patch on the male is more extensive and darker than on the female; juveniles (July-January) are mottled gray-brown.

Length: 7.25"
Wingspan: 12"
Weight: 1.1 oz

Voice: The call is a very high, thin whistle. Waxwings call frequently, especially in flight.

Similar Species:

No other bird found in Tennessee has a yellow terminal band on the tail. Also, the combination of soft cinnamon-colored plumage, head crest, and black mask make it an easy bird to identify.
Habitat: Cedar Waxwings breed in woodland edges, old fields with shrubs and small trees, riparian areas, farms, and suburban gardens. They winter in areas with fruit-bearing trees and shrubs, especially open woodlands, parks, gardens, and forest edges.

Diet: Primarily fruit, but also insects

Nesting and reproduction: Cedar Waxwings are among the latest nesting birds in North America, and this enables them to capitalize on the abundance of fruit in late summer and early fall.  In Tennessee nest construction peaks in early June and nesting extends into August. Waxwings defend only a small territory and sometimes form small nesting colonies.

Clutch Size: Usually 4 to 5 eggs.

Incubation: The female incubates the eggs for about 12 days with the male bringing her food.

Fledging: Both parents feed the young insects for the first few days and then mostly fruit. The nestlings fledge at about 15 days old, but stay close to the nest and are fed by the parents for another 6 to 10 days. They may then join a flock with other juvenile birds.

Nest: Both members of the pair help build the nest, which is usually on a horizontal branch or fork of a deciduous or coniferous tree. The nest is a loose, open cup made of grass and twigs, lined with moss, rootlets, fine grass, bark, and hair. The average height in Tennessee is 26 feet.

[Phyl]

Cedar Waxwing, , continued

Status in Tennessee: Cedar Waxwings are fairly common breeders in East Tennessee and uncommon breeders in the western part of the state. They are uncommon winter residents and fairly common migrants across the state.  Cedar Waxwing numbers have increased significantly in Tennessee since 1966; the rate of increase is one of the highest of any native bird.

Map of Cedar Waxwing eBird observations in Tennessee


Fun Facts:

Some scientists think that the waxy red tips found on the secondary wing feathers of some individuals may serve a role in mate selection. The number and size of the wax tips increase as the bird ages.
Brown-headed Cowbirds that are raised in Cedar Waxwing nests typically don't survive, in part because the cowbird chicks are not able to grow on the high-fruit diet that the parents feed their nestlings.
Cedar Waxwings may become intoxicated after eating fruit that has fermented. Flocks of impaired individuals have been known to simultaneously hit large glass windows when scared by a predator or a human, resulting in mass casualties and fatalities.
Obsolete English Names: cedar bird, cherry bird

Best places to see in Tennessee: Cedar Waxwings are most commonly found as breeders in the Cumberland Mountains and in the mountains of East Tennessee. Flocks of up to a few hundred birds are patchily distributed across the state in winter where fruits are available.

[Phyl]

Cedar Waxwing, , continued







Sources:

Nicholson, C. P. 1997. Atlas of Breeding Birds of Tennessee. Univ. of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

Sibley, D. A. 2000. The Sibley Guide to Birds. A. A. Knopf, New York, NY.

Witmer, M. C., D. J. Mountjoy and L. Elliot. 1997. Cedar Waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum), The Birds of North America, No. 309 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.

[Phyl]

Prothonotary Warbler
Protonotaria citrea



The Prothonotary Warbler apparently acquired its current name from Louisiana Creoles in the 18th century.  They thought the bird's plumage resembled the yellow robes of the prothonotaries, a Catholic church official who advises the Pope.

The Prothonotary Warbler is unique among eastern warblers because it nests in tree cavities in flooded forests.

It is found during the breeding season across much of the eastern United States ranging from Florida to eastern Texas and north to Wisconsin and New Jersey.  The breeding stronghold for the species, however, is in the lowlands of the southeastern United States, especially the Mississippi Alluvial Valley.

Prothonotary Warblers spend the nonbreeding season in mangrove swamps in southern Central America and northern South America.  The highest concentration is in Costa Rica, Panama, and northern Colombia.

The Prothonotary Warbler is present in Tennessee from early April to early August.

Description: This small songbird has a golden-yellow head and chest.  The bird has a bright black eye, solid gray wings, and a white belly.

The male and female are similar, but the female is slightly duller and less golden. The plumage of the Prothonotary Warbler does not change during the non-breeding season.

Length: 5.5"
Wingspan: 8.75
Weight: 0.56 oz

Voice: The song is a series of clear, emphatic, ringing notes given at the same pitch: sweet sweet sweet sweet sweet. The call is a very loud, dry chip.

Similar Species:

The Prothonotary Warbler is unique in appearance and unlikely to be confused with any other species.
Habitat: Prothonotary Warblers breed in wooded swamps, flooded bottomland forests, and along slow-moving rivers.

Diet: They eat insects and snails during the breeding season. On the wintering grounds, this species will also eat fruits, seeds, and nectar along with insects.

Nesting and reproduction: The Prothonotary Warbler is the only cavity-nesting eastern warbler.

It especially likes abandoned Downy Woodpecker holes but will use the holes of other woodpeckers, natural cavities, and will readily accept artificial nest boxes.

About half of the females in Tennessee will attempt a second nesting after completing the first.

Clutch Size: They usually 5 eggs, with a range of 3 to 6.

Incubation: The female incubates the eggs for 12 to 14 days, with the male occasionally bringing her food.

Fledging: Both adults feed the young, which leave the nest after 10 days. The fledglings are dependent on the adults for another 3 to 4 weeks. If the female finds another nest, the male will care for all the fledglings.

Nest: Inside an abandoned woodpecker hole or other natural cavities, the female builds a nest using mostly mosses and liverworts. It takes approximately 3 to 5 days to build the nest. The average nest height in Tennessee is about 6.5 feet. Nest Box Instructions here.

Status in Tennessee: The Prothonotary Warbler is a common summer resident found in cypress swamps and river bottomland forests.  It arrives from the end of March to the beginning of April and departs in late July to early August.

[Phyl]

Prothonotary Warbler, continued

The population appears to be stable in Tennessee but slightly declining elsewhere in the range.

Map of Prothonotary Warbler eBird observations in Tennessee


Conservation: The Prothonotary Warbler is on the National Audubon Society Watch List because of the continuing destruction of mangroves on their wintering grounds.

Fun Facts:

If a fledgling Prothonotary Warbler lands in the water after its first flight, it can swim to safety.
The Prothonotary Warbler is one of only two warbler species that breed in cavities. The other species is Lucy's Warbler found in the southwestern United States.
Obsolete English Names: golden swamp warbler

Best places to see in Tennessee: Meeman-Shelby Forest State Park and Wildlife Management Area, Chickasaw National Wildlife Refuge, Reelfoot Lake area, Tennessee River, Duck River, Hatchie River valleys. There is often a breeding pair on the dam at Radnor Lake State Park.

[Phyl]

Prothonotary Warble, continued

Fun Facts:

If a fledgling Prothonotary Warbler lands in the water after its first flight, it can swim to safety.
The Prothonotary Warbler is one of only two warbler species that breed in cavities. The other species is Lucy's Warbler found in the southwestern United States.
Obsolete English Names: golden swamp warbler

Best places to see in Tennessee: Meeman-Shelby Forest State Park and Wildlife Management Area, Chickasaw National Wildlife Refuge, Reelfoot Lake area, Tennessee River, Duck River, Hatchie River valleys. There is often a breeding pair on the dam at Radnor Lake State Park.









Sources:
Nicholson, C. P. 1997. Atlas of Breeding Birds of Tennessee. Univ. of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

Petit, L. J. 1999. Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea), The Birds of North America (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.

Sibley, D. A. 2000. The Sibley Guide to Birds. A. A. Knopf, New York, NY.

[Phyl]

Common Yellowthroat



The sprightly Common Yellowthroat usually stays low in thick marshy or brushy vegetation, and is often hard to see.  The bold black mask of the male and his distinctive wich-i-ty, wich-i-ty, wich-i-ty song makes this an easy warbler to identify.

The Common Yellowthroat breeds from western Canada across North America and spends the non-breeding season in the coastal southeastern states, throughout Mexico and Central America, and the Caribbean.

In Tennessee it is found statewide from mid-April to late October, and occasionally through the winter.

Description: The Common Yellowthroat is plain olive-green above and yellow below with a grayish belly. The male has a broad black mask bordered with white; the female lacks the mask and is duller overall.
Length: 5"
Wingspan: 6.75"
Weight: 0.35 oz

Voice: The song is a series of three wich-i-ty, wich-i-ty, wich-i-ty notes. The call note is a distinctive, husky chip along with a raspy, scolding trill.

Similar Species:

Female Common Yellowthroats resemble female Connecticut Warbler and Mourning Warbler, except they have dusky or grayish hoods and entirely yellow underparts. Both Connecticut and Mourning Warblers are rare migrants in Tennessee and are not often seen or heard.
Habitat: Common Yellowthroats breed in a variety of brushy habitats including fencerows, grassy marshes, abandoned agricultural fields, and brushy pastures.

Diet: Insects and other small invertebrates, and occasionally seeds.

Nesting and reproduction: Pairs form shortly after the females arrive on the breeding grounds, and most pairs raise two broods a season. When the first brood fledges, the female starts the second brood, and the male feeds the fledglings.

Clutch Size: Usually 4 eggs, with a range of 1 to 6.

Incubation: The female incubates for 12 days, with the male occasionally bringing her food.

Fledging: Both parents feed the young, which leave the nest in 8 to 10 days. The parents continue to feed the young for at least two weeks following fledging.

Nest: The female selects the nest site and builds the nest, usually in low, thick vegetation. The nest is a loose, bulky cup, sometimes with a partial roof, made of weeds, grass, sedge, and leaves, and lined with fine bark, grass, and hair.

[Phyl]

Common Yellowthroat,continued

Status in Tennessee: The Common Yellowthroat is a common summer resident and one of the most abundant of the wood warblers nesting in Tennessee.  It usually arrives in mid-April and departs by late October.

There are several winter records for this species in the state. The population has been declining in Tennessee and elsewhere in its range for several years.

Map of Common Yellowthroat eBird observations in Tennessee



Fun Facts:

The Common Yellowthroat was first collected in what is now Maryland, and described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766, making it one of the first species of birds to be described from the New World.
Common Yellowthroats are monogamous within a breeding season and only infrequently will males have two mates in their territory. Females, however, are not faithful to their mates and often attract other males with their calls for extra-pair copulations.
Obsolete English Names: northern yellowthroat, southern yellowthroat, Maryland yellowthroat.

Best places to see in Tennessee: This species is common in thick shrubby vegetation across the state from mid-April to late-October.







Sources:

Guzy, M. J. and G. Ritchison. 1999. Common Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas), The Birds of North America, No. 448 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.

Nicholson, C. P. 1997. Atlas of Breeding Birds of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

Sibley, D. A. 2000. The Sibley Guide to Birds. A. A. Knopf, New York, NY.

[Phyl]

Northern Parula
Setophaga americana



The Northern Parula is the smallest eastern wood-warbler and although it is an active bird, its habit of foraging high in trees at the tips of branches makes it a difficult bird to observe.  The song, a rising buzzy trill, ending with an abrupt lower tsup, is a typical sound in the bottomland and ravine forests across Tennessee in the spring.

The Northern Parula arrives in early April and departs in late September.  The breeding range extends across the eastern half of the United States from southeastern Canada to the Gulf Coast.  In the non-breeding season, the Northern Parula can be found from southern Mexico to Honduras, in the Caribbean, and at the southern tip of Florida.

Description: The Northern Parula is a small, short-necked, short-tailed, active warbler.  It is gray-blue above with a yellowish-green upper back, two bold white wing bars, a bright yellow throat and breast, a white belly, and a white eye-ring broken by a black eye-line.  The male and female look similar but the male has an obvious breast-band of reddish-brown and black.

Length: 4.5"
Wingspan: 7"
Weight: 0.3 oz

Voice: The song is an up-slurred buzzy trill, usually ending with an abrupt lower tsup. Chip note is sharp.

Similar Species:

In appearance, the Northern Parula does not look similar to any other eastern warbler. The song, however, is similar to the Cerulean Warbler. Cerulean song lacks the last abrupt lower tsup note of the Northern Parula and the overall tone of the song is different.
Habitat: Bottomland, riparian, and ravine woodlands.

Diet: Insects and spiders.

Nesting and reproduction: Most nests are built in hanging bunches of epiphytic growth such as Spanish moss or lichens.

Clutch Size: Usually 4 to 5 eggs, occasionally 3 to 7.

Incubation: The female incubates the eggs for 12 to 14 days.

Fledging: Both adults feed the young. Because nests are so difficult to observe, the number of days to fledging is unknown.

Nest: The few nests described in Tennessee are constructed of Usnea lichen, in clusters of evergreen needles or deciduous leaves. In Tennessee, nests range in height from 9 to 95 feet, with an average of 51 feet above the ground.

[Phyl]

Northern Parula,  continued
Status in Tennessee: The Northern Parula is uncommon to fairly common summer resident of bottomland, riparian, and ravine woodlands across the state. The population in Tennessee has been increasing in recent years.

Map of Northern Parula eBird observations in Tennessee


Fun Facts:

Mark Catesby first described the Northern Parula as a Finch Creeper in 1731, and John James Audubon named it the Blue Yellow-backed Warbler in the 1840s.
There is a gap in the breeding distribution from Massachusetts and Connecticut westward. It is unknown if this gap is natural or caused by increased air pollution, which limits the growth of epiphytes that the warbler depends on for nest construction.
Obsolete English Names: blue yellow-backed warbler

[Phyl]

Northern Parula,  continued

Best places to see in Tennessee: Bottomland, riparian, and ravine woodlands across the state.









Sources:

M., Ralph R. and D. J. Regelski. 1996. Northern Parula (Parula americana), The Birds of North America No. 215 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.

Nicholson, C. P. 1997. Atlas of Breeding Birds of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

Sibley, D. A. 2000. The Sibley Guide to Birds. A. A. Knopf, New York, NY.